Detrimental Effects of Humanity’s War on “Lesser” Primates

During the last century human beings have effected considerable changes on our environment, including the habitats of our closest relations, the chimpanzees, bonobos and gorillas. While certain changes may appear to benefit humans in the short term, the general effects of destruction of the rainforest habitats where our primate relatives reside has been anything but favorable for our non-human primate relations. By contributing to the near extinction and genetic bottlenecks of these other primates, we are also doing our own species a disservice through loss of our kin. Concerns are about the extinction of the peaceful bonobo, that loss may prove most destructive to our own species in the end, as we struggle to find peace in the era of nuclear weapons, our most dangerous tool ever.

Throughout human history we have coexisted with apes and monkeys, though the apes are most closely related to us. Christians who sailed to Africa from temperate Europe began exploration of the tropical rainforest habitats where monkey’s lived and found them to be similar to their myths of the “Devil” based on their sexual freedoms. The focus of Christianity was “self-denial”, this concept led to monkeys being seen as “naughty” for their sexual openness. This view was also pushed onto the greater pagan societies worldwide, with the results of monkeys viewed as the Devil by early Christians (DeWall, pg 134).

The most recent era of exploitation and study of apes and monkeys began with scientific experimentation of two differing viewpoints. Generally speaking, the division was between experiments on captive primates in labs countered by outdoor lab research within the primate’s native environment. This second form of research required the scientist to physically bond with and live within the primate’s habitat. By immersing themselves in their ecosystem the researchers were able to obtain far more accurate observations than those experiments on captives caged in the labs. In addition, the outdoor research was less intrusive as the primates were not deprived of their freedom of movement and rights to remain in their native rainforest habitat.

Jane Goodall is one of the most knowledgeable of the outdoor primate researchers. 1967 Jane Goodall’s first book “My Friends the Wild Chimpanzee” was released. Jane Goodall studied chimps in their wild habitat, trying to be as nonintrusive as possible while learning from their behavior in their natural state. Jane’s bonding with the chimps led her to become engaged in conservation activism to protect them from harm from poachers and other threats. That same year Harry Harlow received the National Science medal for his experiments on caged rhesus monkeys. Harlow’s experiments took place exclusively inside of a closed lab in Madison WI, far from any tropical rainforest habitat. The experiments took place with a surrogate mechanical mother and live baby monkeys. During these experiments, the baby monkeys clung to this abusive robotic mother, showing results that the babies need for contact was greater than their need for relief from pain. Ironically, Jane Goodall came to the same conclusion with her research, yet her primates did not suffer during their time with Jane.

This early experiment by Harlow set the trend for decades of abusive research on apes and monkeys, where scientists manipulate experiments in a coldly detached and unemotional way, regardless of the very real suffering experienced by the primates being tested (Montgomery, pg 111).

We witness current manifestations of primate abuse to benefit the pharmaceutical industry and their novel drugs. In addition, subtle yet relevent differences between humans and our closest relatives skew the supposed accuracy of the researchers results. The cruelty aspect compounds the suffering and in turn again skews accuracy as confined in a depressed state the primates, monkeys and chimps will be immunologically compromised and react differently to the drug trials. We would question the motives of the researchers at UC Davis and other primate research centers as stimulated by research funding coming from the pharmaceutical corporations for accelerated release of novelty drug products (All Creatures website).

Certainly the “monkey as devil” belief ingrained in western society by centuries of Christianity was helpful for the modern scientists who felt they could justify their godlike positions over the helpless monkeys being tortured. The other fallacy used to justify cruel experiments on primates was religious in origin, claiming that non-human animals did not posses a “soul” and thus were incapable of feeling pain. These and other myths served to placate the public and the researchers themselves who felt that the “greater good of science” was more important than the sufferings felt by the non-human primates.

Conservation of rainforest habitat and their primate residents began during this same period as poaching for biomedical experiments and other threats pushed chimps and gorillas to the brink of extinction. Dian Fossey was a primate conservationist and mountain gorilla researcher murdered by unknown assailant, after several years of her active conservation methods of an anti-poaching mercenary army that used strong and sometimes brutal tactics on the poachers who were killing the mountain gorillas (Montgomery, 214). Despite outcries from concerned humanitarians who felt her tactics against the economically desperate poachers were cruel and harsh, Dian felt she needed to protect the gorillas by any means necessary. Under the circumstances of “kill or be killed”, Dian learned from and adopted an African value system of survival by any means to save the endangered mountain gorillas. According to fellow primate researcher Birute Galdikas, “She was doing what an African would have done in the same situation.” (Montgomery, 217). Even with all the threats and violence from the poachers, Dian’s mercenary anti-poacher crew never actually killed anyone. Upon her arrival in Rwanda during the early seventies, there were only 480 mountain gorillas remaining and by 1985 only 260 were left. She knew 88 personally, of these 6 were killed by poachers and 2 were removed from the rainforest and taken to zoos. (Montgomery, 225). The Mountain Gorilla Project begun in 1978 was a reaction to attempts by Rwandan government officials to isolate gorilla populations even further with cattle ranching and farming. Cattle ranching and farming would further partition the rainforest by clearcuts and isolate the dwindling populations of gorillas. This isolation of populations can result in the bottleneck effects of genetic drift where descendents have fewer alleles and genes available to them and are likely to suffer deformities and illnesses from inbreeding. To counter this potential threat of isolation, gorilla tourism was viewed as a better option (Montgomery, 226). Following the implementation of the tourist program, by 1981 the gorilla reserve park paid for itself from tourist revenue, and in 1984 no gorillas were killed by poachers (Montgomery, 227). Since by that time the population was as low as 260, this intervention may have rescued the gorillas from extinction in the nick of time. During her stay in Rwanda, Dian lived with and learned from the mountain gorillas population, they accepted her as one of them. Dian’s Rwandan name was “Nyiramachabelli” or “old woman who lives alone in the mountains without a man”. She lived with the gorillas on the mountain slopes of the Virunga Volcanoes, with 67” of rain per year, occasional hailstorms and generally slippery, wet and tangled vegetation, roaming armies of safari ants and generally isolated habitat (Montgomery, 131). Dian endured these and many other hardships during her efforts to save the unique species of mountain gorillas from certain extinction by humans.

The recovery of mountain gorillas by 17% is recently countered by the nearly 70% population reduction of eastern lowland gorillas (Pickrell, NG website). Mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei) of the Virunga Volcanoes are a separate species from the eastern lowland gorillas (Gorilla beringei graueri), who live at lower altitudes in the rainforests of the Democratic Republic of Congo. The differences in the type of rainforest microclimate and botanical diversity could have resulted in the separation of these two gorilla species. The third gorilla species is the western lowland gorilla. What matters is that all three gorillas are unique to their habitat and deserve protection from human intrusions. The reason for the recent decline from 17,000 to below 5,000 eastern lowland gorillas is the presence of the mineral columbine tantalite, also called coltan, used in cell phones, laptops and other electronic equipment. This mineral columbine tantalite is found in sediments of the lowland rainforests, and the rush by international mining corporations to extract this resource has provoked civil conflict and a trade in bushmeat for the mining camps along with habitat destruction. Protection is needed for the eastern lowland gorillas, and the corporations that exploit this mineral resource need to be held responsible for the population losses of the gorillas. (Pickrell, Nat Geo website)

Next nearest to the human species from the gorilla is the chimpanzee and the recently discovered bonobo. DNA studies show that chimps are closer related to humans than they are to orangutans and gorillas (Montgomery, pg. 31). Chimpanzees have been studied by anthropologists for their unique traits shared with humans. Jane Goodall is a researcher and conservationist who lived with Flo and several other chimpanzees from Tanzania’s Gombe Stream Reserve, started in 1960 (Montgomery, 25). Instead of forcing monkeys to endure abuse from robot mothers in labs for the purpose of research, Jane learned from chimps mothering values by living with them and watching their behaviors in their rainforest home. What she reported was that mothering is the most powerful force in chimpanzee society, that early experiences determine outlook for life (Montgomery, 38). Like human babies, baby chimps are very impressionable and the presence of a nurturing caring mother is needed for a healthy and stable adult. “Good motherhood is important for both chimps and humans”, Jane said. Her statement of chimps as good mothering role models upset modern feminists who wanted to enter the 9-5 work world with men (Montgomery, 40). Her direct involvement with chimps showed that there were common traits between humans and chimps that could not be denied by modern political and cultural trends.

Unfortunately these common traits between humans and chimps were exploited by the scientific research communities who covertly hired poachers and used the chimps kidnapped from rainforests for medical research applied to humans. This removal of chimps from the rainforest contributes to destruction of their genetic diversity as chimps are found in only in rainforests of limited parts of tropical Africa, and the international biomedical establishment remains one of their greatest threats. To continue the use of chimps in medical testing, the National Institute of Health opposed changing the classification of chimps from threatened to endangered (Nichol, 128).

There are other continued threats to chimps, gorillas and other rainforest residents. Destruction to the rainforest comes from large scale clearance of old growth trees by logging corporations. Already poor soil was eroded after the forest was cut and the first rains washed the humus and soil away, then by mining corporations digging into the soil. Following this banana plantations attempt to grow crops on unfertile ground with heavy applications of commercial fertilizer.

Eventually cattle ranchers graze their cattle for human consumption of fast food on the sparse grasses that attempt to recolonize the damaged soils. (Nichol, 109-110). After decades of abuse to rainforest species, the Convention on International Trade of Endangered Species of Plants and Animals was established, also known as CITES (Nichol, 114). However, CITES is only able to regulate the trade of endangered species, and is unable to prevent the loss of rainforest habitat from logging, cattle ranching, etc...

African rainforests provide 60 million cubic meters of wood and 380 million cubic meters of fuel wood, mostly from the clearcutting of rainforests from a thin band from 10 degrees north to 10 degrees south of the Equator, only 8% of Earth’s surface area though containing 2/5th of all species (Nichol, 160). The lower base of the rainforest is poor quality clay soil with a surface layer of humus composted from dead leaves, animals, trees, etc... All fallen leaf litter and other organic matter is quickly recycled into this humus layer by decomposer organisms. The thick canopy overhead results in conditions of near darkness on the ground level (Nichol, 45).

There are other methods of conservation applied to rainforests, one uses the native medicinal plants found in rainforests as renewable resources. Non-invasive research shows that natural based botanical medicines are generally more effective than synthetic pharmaceuticals for human health, and an export trade of natural herbal medicines from the rainforest would give incentives for local people and governments to use their rainforests for something other than a wood factory (Nichol, pg. 173). In addition, there are several diverse cultures of human populations that remain as rainforest residents. The Mbuti pygmies from the Ituri forest in Zaire are smallest people in the world, and are specialists in rainforest botanical knowledge and tree climbing (Nichol, 94). Losing the rainforests to habitat destruction would result in the simultaneous extinctions of the Mbuti pygmies along with all their botanical resources and the gorillas, chimps, and bonobos that we’ve just begun to know.

The bonobos are the closest relations between the chimps and humans. Physical traits show bonobos to be nearly identical to chimps, though there are slight differences in physical variation and considerable differences in behavior and social structure. Ancestral cladistics show that Old World primates split between the tailed monkeys and hominids 30 million years ago, while humans split off 6 million years ago and gorillas 7-8 million years ago, while chimps split from bonobos 3 million years ago. (DeWall, pg. 3).

Where bonobos differ from chimps most noticeably is in their behavior. Chimpanzee society tends towards male dominated, aggressive power plays. Bonobo society is female centered, egalitarian, substituting multi-sexual relations for aggression (DeWall, 4). Physical differences occur also, weight distribution in bonobos show a smaller upper body and longer legs than in chimps, the bonobo is similar to early human ancestor Australopithecines (DeWall, 24-25). Bonobos may be closer related to common ancestor of humans than any living chimp, says Coolidge (DeWall, 25).

There are several theories for the recent divergence between bonobos and chimps. One likely theory is a result of environmental conditions. Chimps left the rainforest then adapted to open savannas and woodlands, while bonobos remained in the rainforest and less changes were needed (DeWall, 25). Other differences between chimps are the trait of neoteny, the continuation of juvenile characteristics in mature adults, found in both bonobos and humans (DeWall, 27). Peaceful settlement of conflicts of interest is unique to bonobos (DeWall, 32).

Science has only recently discovered the existence of bonobos, discovered in 1927 living south of the Zaire River (DeWall, 58). Bonobos live in sparsely populated Cuvette Centrale in Zaire, last half of remaining rainforest (DeWall, 171). Bonobo range is bordered by the Zaire River to the north and west, by the Lomami River to the east and by the Kasai and Sankuru Rivers to the south. Most of their range is rainforest with some woodlands and grasslands. (DeWall, 171). Bonobos are classified as vulnerable to extinction, greatest threats are habitat destruction from logging and bushmeat trade (DeWall, 172). Following civil strife and food shortages, traditional taboos against killing bonobos were ignored (DeWall, 174).

Bonobos use sex for sex, for conflict resolution and signs of affection. (DeWall, 100). Several physical adaptations helped bonobos in using sex as a substitution for physical aggression. Prolonged genital swellings in females reduced competition among males (DeWall, 139). Genital anatomy of bonobos is adapted for ventral-ventral copulation, similar to humans (DeWall, 102). Males engage in penis rubbing to settle disputes over females, food or territory, though no evidence of anal penetration exists (DeWall, 103). Manual masturbation, penis stroking and genital massaging occurs between same and opposite sex, or self stimulation (DeWall, 104). Sexual behavior between both same and opposite sexes is mechanism to overcome social tensions and is especially used in food sharing (DeWall, 109).

Recent researchers have lived with bonobos in order to better understand their unique behaviors. Living with the bonobos in ther rainforest home would be the most appropriate method, though some of the bonobos being studied in outdoor enclosures are rescued from conflict regions after habitat loss and threats from poachers. The ideal learning method is to protect the rainforest habitat of the bonobos and other primates and live with them as Jane Goodall did. From an interview with Amy Parish, PhD in Anthropology from UC Davis;

“Female bonds are stranger between one another than between females and males, females control access to food and sometimes form alliances with other females to attack males.” (DeWall, pg 113).

It appears that female dominance makes violence less desireable by males, and could also reduce infanticide by aggressive males. Infanticide exists in chimps and gorillas yet is absent in bonobos (DeWall, 119). The prolonged genital swelling of females results in less need for physical aggression between males, though other strategies by lower ranking males may contribute to their peaceful nature. Reduced competition between bonobo males is the norm, and lower ranking males are also more secretive with their sexual encounters to avoid conflict with higher ranking males (DeWall, 120).

Takayoshi Kano from Kyoto University also studies bonobos in great detail, and along with coworker S. Kuroda is the director of the Bonobo Project in Wamba, Zaire (DeWall, 61). By placing themselves in the bonobos habitat and simultaneously protecting it, Kano is having the most positive ethical impact on the bonobos and also the most accurate research results. We can learn from the bonobos without being intrusive and removing them from their natural tropical rainforest habitat. Both Kano and Kuroda emphasized the distinction between bonobos and chimps;

“Bonobos engage in long term bonding between mother and son. Sexual behavior is used by bonobos as social tools. Female centered organizations exist in bonobo society.” (DeWall, 59-61)

They theorize that the slower growth of bonobo infants could result in the longer term bonds between mothers and sons. (DeWall, 59-61).

In addition, the distinction includes behavioral traits not witnessed in chimp society. According to Kano, “Chimps are unable to develop peaceful relations with other groups of chimps, as their social organization focuses on power and fighting.” By their lack of using sexual relations for conflict resolution, the chimps have to expend greater amounts of energy to fighting and using physical force to accomplish their social interactions. For this reason, Kano believes that bonobos are more intelligent than chimps (DeWall, 59).

Kano is concerned that the bonobos may become extinct before humans can get the message of peaceful conflict resolution. He stresses that “the future of bonobos is threatened by an increase in bushmeat hunting that follows times of political instability and food shortages. Older traditions and taboos against killing bonobos are ignored because of hunger.” (DeWall, 59-61). How ironically sad that we humans in our reckless battles for power over one another could bring about as a result the disappearance of the one primate who may hold the answers to resolving our conflicts without military weapons, genocide and other aspects of modern human warfare.
Wamba investigators follow bonobos into forests to find three basic habitats; a swamp forest with low trees, prop roots and muddy soil, a primary forest with dark understory from dense canopy with little or no undergrowth, and a secondary forest formed after clearcutting operations with lower tree density. Of the three types of forest found in their range, bonobos prefer the primary forests that have the richest biodiversity of plant life and fruits. Bonobo diet is high in fruits and pith (stems and shoots), higher vegetable protein and insects results in less animal protein intake than in chimps. (DeWall, 64-65).

The subtle differences between different species of gorilla, chimps and bonobos are also mirrored in the evolution of our earliest ancestors. One species that probably existed on humans ancestral lineage is a subspecies of the Genus Australopihtecus, another hominid that is on the path between apes and humans.

Geography of the region is influential in the East African Rift Valley system. East of the Rift Valley, climate changed and forest shifted to woodland and savannas. This is an example of where environmental discontinuity can lead to evolutionary discontinuity (Howells, 71-72).
Fossils of Australopithecus were found from the timeline of 3.7 million yeas before present for a continuous segment of 2.5 million years thereafter (Howells, 73). The earliest Australopithecus found was named “Lucy”, from the Afar depression in Ethiopia (Howells, 78). The Afar hominid groups were erect walkers, though retained curved finger and toe bones, a trait that shows adaptability to traveling through trees (Howells, 79). Here we see a reminder of the gorillas adaptation to thick forest cover, with nearly horizontal climbing the gorilla had four hands to adapt. Later travel by hominids into open ground required two legged upright gait to be more energy efficient. Other contributing factors included need to have hands free to carry and store food (Howells, 72). This theory supports the East Africa Rift Valley discontinuity as shifting land and new open grassland and savannah would result in needed running to obtain cover in distances between forest glades. This is similar to the earlier hypothesis of lobe finned fish were not determined to be land going amphibians, though needed fins like limbs to travel from pond to pond as the climate gradually dried (Howells, 72).

The earliest hominids known were of the Genus Australopithecus, meaning “southern ape”, a species endemic to regions of Africa south of the Sahara desert. (Kurtain, 61). They are also the first bipedal species between 4-9 mya (Kurtain, 66). Further species differentiation is found within species of Australopithecus, especially when looking at early slender forms compared with later robust forms (Kurtain, 73). The earliest find is called Australopithecus afarensis from Laetoli in Tanzania and Afar in Ethiopia who also had curved finger and toe bones for tree climbing. (Kurtain, 73-74). Another early slender type was A. africanus from the Taung, Sterkfontein and Haerd Cave at Makapansgat in South and East Africa. Later finds and closer to early Homo genus is A. robustus, also from S. Africa though larger than A. africanus, and believed to have developed separately and directly from A. afarensis. This is one identifiable diverging of the lineage between Homo and Australopitecus. Branching off of the Homo Genus from Australopithecus occurred when the local population entered a new and different selection process (Kurtain, 89). The same differences between chimps and bonobos, gorillas and humans are also based upon climate and environment. This shows us the type of diet, behavior and method of travel most suitable to our changing environment. Just like the branching off of the different species of Australopithecus, some humans may consider adapting their behavior more like the bonobos and less like the chimps, especially when our weapons of choice include nuclear bombs cabable of causing massive amounts of death for all species on Earth.
In conclusion, there are many differences and similarities between and among the three primates; gorillas, chimps and humans that are valid to our understanding of our collective behaviors and responses to our environments. The non-intrusive study of the bonobo can teach humanity lessons we need to learn about living in peace with one another. Collectively we realize that in the age of nuclear weaponry we cannot afford to continue on our evolutionary path of warlike behavior or we will face extinction like our earlier ancestor Australopithecines who became extinct for different reasons. Bonobos and chimps are so strikingly similar in appearance yet so different in behavior. Mountain gorillas and eastern lowland gorillas are also different because of local environmental influences, and the survival of both is vital to the habitats they exist within. Conservation of these sentient gentle giants is essential for humanity to maintain our connections to our past and as an evolved ethical species humans can tell the difference between right and wrong, and we know it is wrong to act as bullies and destroy a species like the gorilla. Our greed and mismanagement of resources is the source of the political instability, civil wars and resulting famines that press the miners and poachers into the bushmeat trade. The bonobos teach humans that this warfare over resources isn’t needed for people to be happy, and we need to evolve ourselves into a species with behavior similar to the bonobo to avoid further destruction of rainforest habitats and eventually our own species.



References;

“Walking with the Great Apes” by Sy Montgomery 1991, Boston; Houghton Mifflin

“The Mighty Rainforest” John Nichol 1990, London; David and Charles Publishers

“Bonobo: The Forgotten Ape” by Frans DeWall & Frans Lanting 1997, Berkeley; UC Press

“Our Earliest Ancestors” Bjorn Kurten 1993, New York; Columbia University Press

“Getting Here: The Story of Human Evolution” William Howells 1993, Washington DC; Compass Press

“Eastern Lowland Gorilla Numbers Plunge to 5,000, Study Says” by John Pickrell, March, 31, 2004 National Geographic News; England

Website;

http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/03/0331_040331_easterngorillas.html

http://www.all-creatures.org/wlalw/articles-primatectrs.html


UC Davis makes PETA's #4 position in the 2005 top ten worst animal research facilities;

http://www.stopanimaltests.com/f-worstlabs_04.asp